اليهودية والعبودية

تختلف وجهات النظر اليهودية حول العبودية من الناحية الدينية والتاريخية. تحتوي النصوص الدينية القديمة والقرطوسية على العديد من القوانين حول ملكية العبيد والتعامل معهم. والنصوص التي تحتوي على مثل هذه اللوائح تشمل التناخ، والتلمود، والمشناه ومشناه توراة للحاخام موسى بن ميمون، وشولحان عاروخ من قبل الحاخام يوسف كارو. تشبه قوانين العبودية الإسرائيلية الأصلية الموجودة في التوراة بعضًا من قوانين العبودية في القرن الثامن عشر قبل الميلاد في شريعة حمورابي.^[1] وتغيرت اللوائح بمرور الوقت. احتوت التوراة على مجموعتين من القوانين، واحدة للعبيد الكنعانيين، ومجموعة قوانين أكثر تساهلاً للعبيد العبرانيين. من وقت أسفار موسى الخمسة، تم تطبيق القوانين المخصصة للكنعانيين على جميع العبيد من غير العبرانيين. وتحتوي قوانين العبودية في التلمود، والتي تعود من القرن الثاني حتى القرن الخامس الميلادي،^[2] على مجموعة واحدة من القواعد للتعامل مع جميع العبيد، على الرغم من وجود بعض الاستثناءات القليلة حيث يعامل العبيد من العبرانيين بشكل مختلف عن العبيد غير العبرانيين. وتشمل القوانين عقوبة لأصحاب العبيد الذين يسيئون معاملة عبيدهم. في العصر الحديث، عندما سعت حركة إلغاء العبودية إلى حظر العبودية، استخدم أنصار العبودية القوانين لتوفير التبرير الديني لممارسة العبودية.

تاريخياً، كان بعض اليهود يمتلكون العبيد ويتاجرون بهم.^[3] وكانوا لاعبين مهمين في تجارة الرقيق في العصور الوسطى في أوروبا حتى حوالي القرن الثاني عشر.^[4]^[5]^[6] لكن، تم نشر العديد من الأعمال العلمية لدحض الإشاعات المعادية للسامية حول السيطرة اليهودية على تجارة الرقيق في أفريقيا والأمريكتين في القرون اللاحقة،^[7]^[8] وإظهار أن اليهود ليس لديهم تأثير كبير أو مستمر على تاريخ العبودية في العالم الجديد.^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10] حيث كان لديهم عبيد أقل بكثير بالمقارنة مع غير اليهود في كل الأراضي الإسبانية في أمريكا الشمالية ومنطقة البحر الكاريبي، ولم يلعبوا في أي وقت دورًا رائدًا كممولين أو مالكي سفن أو من عوامل في تجارة الرقيق عبر المحيط الأطلسي أو الكاريبي.^[11]

انظر أيضًا

مراجع

^ Hastings, p 619
^ "The Talmud". BBC Religion. BBC. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2018-07-08. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2014-12-18.
^ Oscar Reiss (2 يناير 2004). The Jews in Colonial America. McFarland. ص. 85. ISBN:978-0-7864-1730-8. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2016-04-02.
^ Hastings, p 620
^ Drescher, p 107
^ "YIVO | Trade". www.yivoencyclopedia.org (بEnglish). Archived from the original on 2019-05-19. Retrieved 2018-07-02.
^ ^أ ^ب Reviewed Work: Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight by Eli Faber by Paul Finkelman. Journal of Law and Religion, Vol 17, No 1/2 (2002), pp 125-28^{[بحاجة لمُعرِّف الكتاب]} نسخة محفوظة 08 يوليو 2016 على موقع واي باك مشين.
^ ^أ ^ب
Refutations of charges of Jewish prominence in slave trade:
- "Nor were Jews prominent in the slave trade. Of the 40 slave merchants in South Carolina, only 1 minor trader was a Jew." [paragraph goes on to list similar breakdowns for other US states] - Marvin Perry, Frederick M. Schweitzer: Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present, p. 245. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002; (ردمك 0-312-16561-7)
- "In no period did Jews play a leading role as financiers, shipowners, or factors in the transatlantic or Caribbean slave trades. They possessed far fewer slaves than non-Jews in every British territory in North America and the Caribbean. Even when Jews in a handful of places owned slaves in proportions slightly above their representation among a town's families, such cases do not come close to corroborating the assertions of The Secret Relationship." - Wim Klooster (University of Southern Maine): Review of Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight by Eli Faber^{[وصلة مكسورة]} (2000). "Reappraisals in Jewish Social and Intellectual History", William and Mary Quarterly Review of Books. Volume LVII, Number 1. Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture^{[بحاجة لمُعرِّف الكتاب]}
- "Medieval Christians greatly exaggerated the supposed Jewish control over trade and finance and also became obsessed with alleged Jewish plots to enslave, convert, or sell non-Jews... Most European Jews lived in poor communities on the margins of Christian society; they continued to suffer most of the legal disabilities associated with slavery. ... Whatever Jewish refugees from Brazil may have contributed to the northwestward expansion of sugar and slaves, it is clear that Jews had no major or continuing impact on the history of New World slavery." - Professor David Brion Davis of Yale University in Slavery and Human Progress (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 89 (cited in Shofar FTP Archive File: orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts نسخة محفوظة 1 أكتوبر 2018 على موقع واي باك مشين.)
- "The Jews of Newport seem not to have pursued the [slave trading] business consistently ... [When] we compare the number of vessels employed in the traffic by all merchants with the number sent to the African coast by Jewish traders ... we can see that the Jewish participation was minimal. It may be safely assumed that over a period of years American Jewish businessmen were accountable for considerably less than two percent of the slave imports into the West Indies" - Professor Jacob R. Marcus of Hebrew Union College in The Colonial American Jew (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1970), Vol. 2, pp. 702-703 (cited in Shofar FTP Archive File: orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts نسخة محفوظة 1 أكتوبر 2018 على موقع واي باك مشين.)
- "None of the major slave-traders was Jewish, nor did Jews constitute a large proportion in any particular community. ... probably all of the Jewish slave-traders in all of the Southern cities and towns combined did not buy and sell as many slaves as did the firm of Franklin and Armfield, the largest Negro traders in the South." - Bertram W. Korn, Jews and Negro Slavery in the Old South, 1789-1865, in The Jewish Experience in America, ed. Abraham J. Karp (Waltham, Massachusetts: American Jewish Historical Society, 1969), Vol 3, pp 197-198 (cited in Shofar FTP Archive File: orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts نسخة محفوظة 1 أكتوبر 2018 على موقع واي باك مشين.)
- "[There were] Jewish owners of plantations, but altogether they constituted only a tiny proportion of the Southerners whose habits, opinions, and status were to become decisive for the entire section, and eventually for the entire country. ... [Only one Jew] tried his hand as a plantation overseer even if only for a brief time." - Bertram W. Korn, "Jews and Negro Slavery in the Old South, 1789-1865", The Jewish Experience in America, ed. Abraham J. Karp (Waltham, Massachusetts: American Jewish Historical Society, 1969), Vol 3, p. 180 (cited in Shofar FTP Archive File: orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts) نسخة محفوظة 01 أكتوبر 2018 على موقع واي باك مشين.
^ Davis، David Brion (1984). "Slavery and Human Progress". New York: Oxford University Press: 89. مؤرشف من الأصل في 1 أكتوبر 2018. اطلع عليه بتاريخ أكتوبر 2020. {{استشهاد بدورية محكمة}}: الاستشهاد بدورية محكمة يطلب |دورية محكمة= (مساعدة) وتحقق من التاريخ في: |تاريخ الوصول= (مساعدة)
^ Anti-Semitism. Farrakhan In His Own Words. On Jewish Involvement in the Slave Trade نسخة محفوظة 2007-09-21 على موقع واي باك مشين. and Nation of Islam. Jew-Hatred as History نسخة محفوظة 2007-08-08 على موقع واي باك مشين.. adl.org (December 31, 2001).^{[وصلة مكسورة]}
^ Wim Klooster (University of Southern Maine): Review of Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight by Eli Faber. "Reappraisals in Jewish Social and Intellectual History", William and Mary Quarterly Review of Books. Volume LVII, Number 1, Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture (2000)^{[بحاجة لمُعرِّف الكتاب]}^{[وصلة مكسورة]} نسخة محفوظة 2020-06-10 على موقع واي باك مشين.

انظر أيضًا

[Hastings,_p_619-1] Hastings, p 619

[BBC_Religion-2] "The Talmud". BBC Religion. BBC. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2018-07-08. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2014-12-18.

[Reiss_p_85-3] Oscar Reiss (2 يناير 2004). The Jews in Colonial America. McFarland. ص. 85. ISBN:978-0-7864-1730-8. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2016-04-02.

[Hastings,_p_620-4] Hastings, p 620

[Drescher,_p_107-5] Drescher, p 107

[6] "YIVO | Trade". www.yivoencyclopedia.org (بEnglish). Archived from the original on 2019-05-19. Retrieved 2018-07-02.

[Finkelman-7] أ ^ب Reviewed Work: Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight by Eli Faber by Paul Finkelman. Journal of Law and Religion, Vol 17, No 1/2 (2002), pp 125-28^{[بحاجة لمُعرِّف الكتاب]} نسخة محفوظة 08 يوليو 2016 على موقع واي باك مشين.

[refutations-8] أ ^ب Refutations of charges of Jewish prominence in slave trade:
"Nor were Jews prominent in the slave trade. Of the 40 slave merchants in South Carolina, only 1 minor trader was a Jew." [paragraph goes on to list similar breakdowns for other US states] - Marvin Perry, Frederick M. Schweitzer: Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present, p. 245. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002; (ردمك 0-312-16561-7)

"In no period did Jews play a leading role as financiers, shipowners, or factors in the transatlantic or Caribbean slave trades. They possessed far fewer slaves than non-Jews in every British territory in North America and the Caribbean. Even when Jews in a handful of places owned slaves in proportions slightly above their representation among a town's families, such cases do not come close to corroborating the assertions of The Secret Relationship." - Wim Klooster (University of Southern Maine): Review of Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight by Eli Faber^{[وصلة مكسورة]} (2000). "Reappraisals in Jewish Social and Intellectual History", William and Mary Quarterly Review of Books. Volume LVII, Number 1. Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture^{[بحاجة لمُعرِّف الكتاب]}

"Medieval Christians greatly exaggerated the supposed Jewish control over trade and finance and also became obsessed with alleged Jewish plots to enslave, convert, or sell non-Jews... Most European Jews lived in poor communities on the margins of Christian society; they continued to suffer most of the legal disabilities associated with slavery. ... Whatever Jewish refugees from Brazil may have contributed to the northwestward expansion of sugar and slaves, it is clear that Jews had no major or continuing impact on the history of New World slavery." - Professor David Brion Davis of Yale University in Slavery and Human Progress (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 89 (cited in Shofar FTP Archive File: orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts نسخة محفوظة 1 أكتوبر 2018 على موقع واي باك مشين.)

"The Jews of Newport seem not to have pursued the [slave trading] business consistently ... [When] we compare the number of vessels employed in the traffic by all merchants with the number sent to the African coast by Jewish traders ... we can see that the Jewish participation was minimal. It may be safely assumed that over a period of years American Jewish businessmen were accountable for considerably less than two percent of the slave imports into the West Indies" - Professor Jacob R. Marcus of Hebrew Union College in The Colonial American Jew (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1970), Vol. 2, pp. 702-703 (cited in Shofar FTP Archive File: orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts نسخة محفوظة 1 أكتوبر 2018 على موقع واي باك مشين.)

"None of the major slave-traders was Jewish, nor did Jews constitute a large proportion in any particular community. ... probably all of the Jewish slave-traders in all of the Southern cities and towns combined did not buy and sell as many slaves as did the firm of Franklin and Armfield, the largest Negro traders in the South." - Bertram W. Korn, Jews and Negro Slavery in the Old South, 1789-1865, in The Jewish Experience in America, ed. Abraham J. Karp (Waltham, Massachusetts: American Jewish Historical Society, 1969), Vol 3, pp 197-198 (cited in Shofar FTP Archive File: orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts نسخة محفوظة 1 أكتوبر 2018 على موقع واي باك مشين.)

"[There were] Jewish owners of plantations, but altogether they constituted only a tiny proportion of the Southerners whose habits, opinions, and status were to become decisive for the entire section, and eventually for the entire country. ... [Only one Jew] tried his hand as a plantation overseer even if only for a brief time." - Bertram W. Korn, "Jews and Negro Slavery in the Old South, 1789-1865", The Jewish Experience in America, ed. Abraham J. Karp (Waltham, Massachusetts: American Jewish Historical Society, 1969), Vol 3, p. 180 (cited in Shofar FTP Archive File: orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts) نسخة محفوظة 01 أكتوبر 2018 على موقع واي باك مشين.

[9] "Nor were Jews prominent in the slave trade. Of the 40 slave merchants in South Carolina, only 1 minor trader was a Jew." [paragraph goes on to list similar breakdowns for other US states] - Marvin Perry, Frederick M. Schweitzer: Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present, p. 245. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002; (ردمك 0-312-16561-7)

[10] "In no period did Jews play a leading role as financiers, shipowners, or factors in the transatlantic or Caribbean slave trades. They possessed far fewer slaves than non-Jews in every British territory in North America and the Caribbean. Even when Jews in a handful of places owned slaves in proportions slightly above their representation among a town's families, such cases do not come close to corroborating the assertions of The Secret Relationship." - Wim Klooster (University of Southern Maine): Review of Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight by Eli Faber^{[وصلة مكسورة]} (2000). "Reappraisals in Jewish Social and Intellectual History", William and Mary Quarterly Review of Books. Volume LVII, Number 1. Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture^{[بحاجة لمُعرِّف الكتاب]}

[11] "Medieval Christians greatly exaggerated the supposed Jewish control over trade and finance and also became obsessed with alleged Jewish plots to enslave, convert, or sell non-Jews... Most European Jews lived in poor communities on the margins of Christian society; they continued to suffer most of the legal disabilities associated with slavery. ... Whatever Jewish refugees from Brazil may have contributed to the northwestward expansion of sugar and slaves, it is clear that Jews had no major or continuing impact on the history of New World slavery." - Professor David Brion Davis of Yale University in Slavery and Human Progress (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 89 (cited in Shofar FTP Archive File: orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts نسخة محفوظة 1 أكتوبر 2018 على موقع واي باك مشين.)

[12] "The Jews of Newport seem not to have pursued the [slave trading] business consistently ... [When] we compare the number of vessels employed in the traffic by all merchants with the number sent to the African coast by Jewish traders ... we can see that the Jewish participation was minimal. It may be safely assumed that over a period of years American Jewish businessmen were accountable for considerably less than two percent of the slave imports into the West Indies" - Professor Jacob R. Marcus of Hebrew Union College in The Colonial American Jew (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1970), Vol. 2, pp. 702-703 (cited in Shofar FTP Archive File: orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts نسخة محفوظة 1 أكتوبر 2018 على موقع واي باك مشين.)

[13] "None of the major slave-traders was Jewish, nor did Jews constitute a large proportion in any particular community. ... probably all of the Jewish slave-traders in all of the Southern cities and towns combined did not buy and sell as many slaves as did the firm of Franklin and Armfield, the largest Negro traders in the South." - Bertram W. Korn, Jews and Negro Slavery in the Old South, 1789-1865, in The Jewish Experience in America, ed. Abraham J. Karp (Waltham, Massachusetts: American Jewish Historical Society, 1969), Vol 3, pp 197-198 (cited in Shofar FTP Archive File: orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts نسخة محفوظة 1 أكتوبر 2018 على موقع واي باك مشين.)

[14] "[There were] Jewish owners of plantations, but altogether they constituted only a tiny proportion of the Southerners whose habits, opinions, and status were to become decisive for the entire section, and eventually for the entire country. ... [Only one Jew] tried his hand as a plantation overseer even if only for a brief time." - Bertram W. Korn, "Jews and Negro Slavery in the Old South, 1789-1865", The Jewish Experience in America, ed. Abraham J. Karp (Waltham, Massachusetts: American Jewish Historical Society, 1969), Vol 3, p. 180 (cited in Shofar FTP Archive File: orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts) نسخة محفوظة 01 أكتوبر 2018 على موقع واي باك مشين.

[Davis_1984_89-9] Davis، David Brion (1984). "Slavery and Human Progress". New York: Oxford University Press: 89. مؤرشف من الأصل في 1 أكتوبر 2018. اطلع عليه بتاريخ أكتوبر 2020. {{استشهاد بدورية محكمة}}: الاستشهاد بدورية محكمة يطلب |دورية محكمة= (مساعدة) وتحقق من التاريخ في: |تاريخ الوصول= (مساعدة)

[adl.org-10] Anti-Semitism. Farrakhan In His Own Words. On Jewish Involvement in the Slave Trade نسخة محفوظة 2007-09-21 على موقع واي باك مشين. and Nation of Islam. Jew-Hatred as History نسخة محفوظة 2007-08-08 على موقع واي باك مشين.. adl.org (December 31, 2001).^{[وصلة مكسورة]}

[oieahc.wm.edu-11] Wim Klooster (University of Southern Maine): Review of Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight by Eli Faber. "Reappraisals in Jewish Social and Intellectual History", William and Mary Quarterly Review of Books. Volume LVII, Number 1, Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture (2000)^{[بحاجة لمُعرِّف الكتاب]}^{[وصلة مكسورة]} نسخة محفوظة 2020-06-10 على موقع واي باك مشين.

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